The present disclosure relates to the boiler arts, with illustrative embodiments including sub-critical boilers, sub-critical natural circulation boilers, coal-fired boilers, sub-critical coal-fired boilers, sub-critical natural circulation coal-fired boilers, and to methods of manufacturing and operating the same. Transition castings are described, along with methods of making and using such, to permit small boilers to attain high superheated steam temperatures greater than about 1000° F., and up to 1100° F.
Small coal-fired boilers find application in diverse settings, such as where power requirements are relatively low (e.g. rural areas, underdeveloped regions), where coal is readily available, and so forth. Typical small coal-fired boilers for electric power generation employ a sub-critical natural circulation design. An example of such a boiler design is the Babcock & Wilcox Carolina-Type Radiant Boiler design. This design employs a furnace with membraned water-cooled furnace walls that feed one or more steam drums. Water passing through the furnace walls absorb heat energy, in effect cooling the tubes/pipes directly exposed to the combustion heat. The steam drum(s) feeds one or more primary superheaters located inside a convection pass, and one or more secondary pendant superheaters located inside the upper portion of the furnace. This superheated steam is used to run a high-pressure turbine. The steam exiting the high-pressure turbine is then sent through reheaters to increase the temperature again, so that the steam can then be used to run a low-pressure turbine.
Water-cooled pipes or tubes are designed to carry wet steam (i.e. a steam/water mixture, or equivalently, steam quality less than 100%). For a given operating pressure, the temperature of wet steam is thermodynamically limited to the boiling temperature of liquid water at the given operating pressure. In practice, water-cooled pipes are designed for an operating temperature of about 650° F.-670° F., corresponding to an operating pressure of about 2200-2600 psig. In a sub-critical boiler, water-cooled pipes feed wet steam into the steam drum.
By contrast, steam-cooled pipes or tubes are designed to carry superheated steam having a steam quality of 100% (i.e., no liquid component). The temperature of superheated steam is not thermodynamically limited for a given pressure, and in Carolina-Type designs the steam-cooled superheaters generally carry superheated steam at temperatures of about 1000° F.-1050° F.
Because of the differences in temperature, water-cooled pipes can be made of lower cost carbon steel, whereas steam-cooled pipes are made of more costly steel compositions. A design such as the Carolina-Type Radiant Boiler advantageously leverages these factors by designing the entire furnace to be water-cooled, so that the membraned walls can use lower cost carbon steel pipes and connecting membranes. The higher alloy superheater components are located within the furnace and convection pass (i.e inside the walls of the boiler), and are not membraned. In such designs, the membraned water-cooled walls are generally cooler than the flue gas to which the steam-cooled superheaters are exposed, due to more efficient heat transfer to the steam/water mixture carried by the water-cooled pipes.
In certain applications, it is desirable to obtain steam at high temperatures after superheating and after reheating, e.g. about 1050° F. after both cycles. This can be difficult in small designs, and further designs and methods are needed to obtain such high temperatures.